Abstract
Directed attention plays an important role in human information processing; its fatigue, in turn, has far-reaching consequences. Attention Restoration Theory provides an analysis of the kinds of experiences that lead to recovery from such fatigue. Natural environments turn out to be particularly rich in the characteristics necessary for restorative experiences. An integrative framework is proposed that places both directed attention and stress in the larger context of human-environment relationships.
Introduction
Evidence pointing to the psychological benefits of nature has accumulated at a remarkable rate in a relatively short period of time. Whether a theoretical understanding of these restorative influences has kept pace with the empirical work is, however, less clear. As Hartig and Evans (1993) have pointed out, theory in this area has been dominated by conflicting positions, one emphasizing stress reduction (Ulrich, 1983) and the other concerned with recovery of the capacity to focus attention (Kaplan & Talbot, 1983; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). While it might be argued that these positions are hopelessly Directed attention far apart, Hartig and Evans hold out hope for a synthesis. The purpose of this paper is to propose a way in which such an integration might be achieved.
A synthesis requires first that there be something to synthesize. There must be entities or ideas distinct enough and useful enough to warrant synthesis. One piece of this is simple to achieve; there is no disagreement over the point that stress is a meaningful concept and that stress reduction is aided by natural environment experience. Ulrich et al. (1991), however, have questioned the usefulness of the attentional concept in this context, and have suggested that the performance deficits found in research on attentional fatigue can be understood simply as effects of stress.
Conclusion
The concept of stress is invoked in common usage under a wide assortment of circumstances. One is 'stressed out' when tired, pressured, anxious, exasperated. Feelings of stress can certainly lead to a sense of ineptitude and to being distraught. There are, however, both practical and theoretical reasons for being more analytic about the diverse situations that are so casually cast as 'stress'. The purpose o this paper has been to propose a framework that distinguishes between the stress-related and the attentional components that lead people to seek and benefit from restorative experiences. To earn its keep, the proposed framework should provide insight into matters not illuminated by previous theory. Here are four examples where this is the
case:
(1) It explains how information-processing demands are related to attentional fatigue, and, under certain circumstances, to stress.
(2) It explains how one can enjoy what one is doing, be good at it, and confident of a positive out-come and still be exhausted from it.
(3) It explains why the two classes of experiences, one involving fatigue and the other, stress, can feel so different. Any theory that ignores these profound phenomenological differences is throwing away some important information.
(4) It explains how the same task can be stressful at one time and not at another. An individual already fatigued (experiencing resource inad equacy) could find a challenge overwhelming even though the same individual in a rested state might consider the same challenge to be minor. Individuals coming back from vacation sometimes find that a matter long avoided is experienced as relatively trivial given their rested state of mind.
In summary the proposed integration points to the existence of two distinct, albeit interacting, benefits of restorative experiences. Both of these benefits have an important role in an individual's life. Quite obviously anything that aids in the management of stress is desirable. At the same time, however, directed attention also plays a significant role. It is essential to a coherent life and to the identification and carrying out of worthwhile purposes. Looking back on a life of purpose and productivity, even if one experienced some stress along the way, might will be more satisfying than looking back on a stress-free life in which little was accomplished.
The proposed integration also makes a contribution to a larger theory of how humans relate to their environment. It points to the significant role that directed attention, a key psychological resource, plays in coping with challenges. In this perspective the role that natural environments play is a powerful one. Experience in natural environments can not only help mitigate stress; it can also prevent it through aiding in the recovery of this essential resource.
Acknowledgements
Many individuals helped in the formation and writ- ing of this article. I would like to thank Lisa Bardwell, Lisa Canin, Bernadine Cimprich, Gary Evans, Carrie Gilker, Terry Hartig, Tom Herzog and Rachel Kaplan. The members of SESAME (Seminar on Environmentally Sensitive Adaptive Mechanisms) were, as always, a great help. And special thanks to David Schwartz for invaluable assistance in the process of revising the manuscript. References suggested by an anonymous reviewer also played a central role in this final version. Work on this article was supported in part by the U.S. Forest Service, North Central Forest Experimental Station, Urban Forestry Project through several cooperative agreements.